The Life of Master Wonhyo

Part 1: Project Background, Significance, and the Life of Master Wonhyo

1. Project Background and Significance

The publication of The Collected Works of Korean Buddhism is a monumental academic and spiritual endeavor spearheaded by the late Venerable Kasan Jikwan, the 32nd President of the Jogye Order. The project aims to restore and share the "hidden gem" of Korean Buddhism, which has been preserved for 1,700 years primarily in literary Chinese—a language that had become impenetrable even to many modern Koreans.

• Global Accessibility: By translating these seminal texts into idiomatic English, the project seeks to place Korean Buddhist masters alongside their counterparts in Indian, Tibetan, Chinese, and Japanese traditions within the global academic discourse.
  
• The "Multi-party Translation" System: To ensure both philological accuracy and readability, the project employed a traditional system involving specialists in literary Chinese, modern Korean, and English, who collaborated through intensive workshops to refine the translations.
• Historical Scope: The series covers the entire span of Korean Buddhist history, from the Three Kingdoms period through the Joseon dynasty, including philosophical treatises, Seon (Zen) gongan cases, and travelogues.

2. The Life of Master Wonhyo (617–686)

Wonhyo is widely regarded as the most influential and prolific thinker in the history of Korean Buddhism.

• Early Life and Studies: Born as Seol Seodang in Amnyang Prefecture (modern Gyeongsan), his name "Wonhyo" literally means "Daybreak," reflecting his desire to be the light of Buddhism in his land. Unlike most monks of his time, Wonhyo did not follow a single master but studied broadly across various doctrinal traditions.
  

  • In the dark, Wonhyo drank sweet water from a gourd, only to realize at dawn that he was in a tomb and the gourd was a human skull.
  • This led to a profound realization: "Because a thought arises, various phenomena arise; since thought ceases, a cave and a grave are not two".
  • Realizing that truth exists only within the mind (Consciousness-only), he abandoned his trip to China, concluding there was no dharma to seek outside himself.
• The Awakening in the Tomb: The most defining moment of his life occurred during his attempt to travel to Tang China with his colleague Uisang. Seeking the new Yogācāra teachings of Xuanzang, the two took shelter in what they thought was a cave during a storm.
• Secular Life and Proselytization: After his awakening, Wonhyo returned to secular life, married Princess Yoseok, and fathered the famous scholar Seol Chong. He styled himself the "Layman of Minor Lineage" and spent his remaining years teaching Buddhism to the common people through songs and dance, using a gourd called "No Obstruction" (Muae).
• Legacy: Wonhyo died in 686 at Hyeolsa. His son Seol Chong interred his ashes in a clay statue at Bunhwangsa, which legend says turned its head to look at Seol Chong when he paid his respects. In 1101, King Sukjong of Goryeo posthumously titled him the "National Preceptor of the Harmonization of Disputes" (Hwajaeng Guksa).

Part 2: Wonhyo's Core Philosophy — Hwajaeng and One Mind

The essence of Master Wonhyo’s thought lies in his unique methodology of reconciling conflicting doctrines and the epistemology that supports it.

1. Harmonization of Disputes (和諍, Hwajaeng)

Wonhyo proposed "Hwajaeng" as a creative methodology to resolve the doctrinal conflicts among various Buddhist schools of his time.

• Methodological Approach: Hwajaeng is a process of exhaustively investigating conflicting positions to identify the precise point where variance occurs. He showed how contradictions often arose from the background, motivation, or sectarian bias of the proponents.
• Critical Attitude: He never judged a single proposition as ultimately correct or incorrect. Instead, he analyzed the validity and limitations of each perspective simultaneously.
• Logical Resolution: Wonhyo demonstrated that when the underlying principles of each position are fully grasped, conflicts disappear. This is most prominently displayed in his work, Ten Approaches to the Reconciliation of Doctrinal Disputes (Simmun hwajaeng non) .

2. Interpenetrated Buddhism (通佛敎, Tong Bulgyo)

Wonhyo viewed Buddhism not as a collection of fragmented sects, but as a vast, unified, and interpenetrating system .

• Integrated Buddhism: Without being affiliated with any particular school, he Mastered and commented on almost all available Mahāyāna scriptures, advancing an "integrated Buddhism" where all doctrines fit into a comprehensive whole.
• Academic Impartiality: He conducted exacting studies on every stream of Indian Mahāyāna transmitted to East Asia. His work is remarkable for its lack of sectarian prejudice, treating all texts with extraordinary even-handedness.

3. The Philosophy of One Mind (一心, One Mind)

The metaphysical foundation that enables Hwajaeng and Tong Bulgyo is the concept of "One Mind" .

• Basis for Harmonization: For Wonhyo, the One Mind refers to the true, non-dual nature of reality where the mundane and absolute are interfused.
• Shift in Perception: Through his personal awakening (the skull-water episode), he realized the principle: "Because a thought arises, various phenomena arise; since thought ceases, a cave and a grave are not two" .
• Connection to Tathāgatagarbha: Drawing from the Awakening of Mahāyāna Faith, Wonhyo used the theory of Tathāgatagarbha (Buddha-matrix) as the principle to harmonize the conflicts between the Yogācāra and Madhyamaka schools .

4. Linguistic vs. Non-Linguistic Hwajaeng

Wonhyo moved beyond mere logical harmonization to recognize the limitations of language.

• Conceptual Hwajaeng: This is the harmonization of disparate positions through a series of rational and logical arguments.
• Non-Linguistic Hwajaeng: He argued that true resolution lies in the ability to dissociate the mind from words and observe reality from a non-conceptual state.
• Final Destination: The ultimate purpose of his exegesis was religious salvation rather than philosophical proof. He emphasized entering the domain of absolute faith, which transcends logic and language.

Part 3: Doctrinal Essentials of the Lotus Sūtra (Beophwa jong-yo)

In this treatise, Master Wonhyo provides a systematic explanation of the Lotus Sūtra, focusing on the core concept of the "One Vehicle" (eka-yāna). He analyzes the sūtra through six perspectives, although the section on literal exegesis is no longer extant.

1. The Purpose of the Buddha’s Appearance

Wonhyo explains that the ultimate purpose of all buddhas appearing in the world is to open the door to the One Vehicle. He argues that the "Three Vehicles" (the paths of śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas) are merely skillful means (upāya) used to lead all sentient beings toward the single, ultimate goal of Buddhahood.

2. Universal Salvation and the One Vehicle

• Inclusive Scope: Wonhyo emphasizes that the One Vehicle is not limited to a specific group. He asserts that all sentient beings, including those once thought to lack the potential (icchantikas) and those in the three realms of existence, are "children of the Buddha" and possess the Buddha-nature.
  • Principle (一乘理): Refers to the one dharma-realm or the tathāgatagarbha (Buddha-matrix), which is equally possessed by all beings.
  • Teaching (一乘教): Encompasses all verbal teachings of the buddhas that lead beings toward omniscience.
  • Cause (一乘之因): Consists of both the inherent Buddha-nature and the active cultivation of wholesome roots through practice.
  • Effect (一乘之果): The final attainment of Buddhahood, which Wonhyo distinguishes as being both intrinsic (the eternal dharma-body) and manifested (skillfully appearing to save others).
• The Four Aspects of the One Vehicle:

3. The Function of "Opening" and "Showing"

Wonhyo clarifies the sūtra’s dual function as "opening the gate of skillful means" and "showing the true aspect of reality".

• Opening: Revealing that the three separate vehicles are provisional tools for guidance.
• Showing: Directly pointing to the true, non-dual nature of the One Vehicle.
• He argues that while language is used to describe these truths, one must not remain attached to the words themselves to grasp the ultimate meaning.

4. Doctrinal Standing: A Fully Revealed Teaching

A significant portion of the treatise addresses whether the Lotus Sūtra should be categorized as a "partial" or "fully revealed" (了義, nītārtha) teaching. Wonhyo concludes that it is a fully revealed teaching because it encompasses and harmonizes all other perspectives, including those that seem narrow or contradictory. He views it as a "perfectly complete dharma-wheel" that transcends temporal and spatial limits.

 

Part 4: Doctrinal Essentials of the Sutra of Immeasurable Life (Muryangsugyeong jong-yo)

In this treatise, Master Wonhyo explores the core issues of the Sutra of Immeasurable Life (Wuliangshou jing), a foundational text of the Pure Land school. He frames his exegesis around the requirements, causes, and effects of rebirth in the Western Paradise of Amitābha Buddha.

1. The Principle of Non-Duality and One Mind

Wonhyo begins by stressing the Buddhist principle of non-duality. He argues that the defiled "sahā-world" and the Pure Land are originally the One Mind; thus, samsāra and nirvāṇa have never been two separate things. However, because sentient beings are caught in the "long dream" of ignorance, they require the guidance of buddhas like Amitābha to return to the source of great enlightenment.

2. Causes of Rebirth in the Pure Land

Wonhyo identifies the central thrust of the sutra as gathering sentient beings and leading them to rebirth in the Pure Land. He distinguishes between three types of practitioners:

• Superior, Middling, and Inferior Classes: He details the specific practices required for each, such as abandoning worldly desires, arousing the bodhi-mind (bodhicitta), and maintaining mindfulness of the Buddha .
• The Power of Ten Recollections: A distinctive feature of Wonhyo’s interpretation is his emphasis on the "Ten Recollections" (십념, ten repetitions of the Buddha's name). He explains that even those who have committed sins can attain rebirth if they practice single-minded mindfulness with deep faith and sincerity.

3. The Four Doubts and the Four Purified Cognitive Faculties

A significant portion of the treatise addresses the "Four Doubts" that prevent practitioners from fully experiencing the Pure Land. Wonhyo insightfully aligns these doubts with the misunderstanding of the four purified cognitive faculties explained in Yogācāra texts (āśraya-parivṛtti):

1. Cognitive faculty with unrestricted activity (成所作智): The ability to perform inconceivable deeds.
2. Marvelous observing cognitive faculty (妙觀察智): The ability to observe the non-dual nature of reality.
3. Cognitive faculty that apprehends essential identity (平等性智): The wisdom of universal equality and salvation.
4. Great mirror-like cognitive faculty (大圓鏡智): The sudden and perfect illumination of all objects in the mind.

Wonhyo warns that those who cannot resolve these doubts may be born only at the "outer edges" of the Pure Land, emphasizing that absolute faith is required to transcend these mental barriers.

4. Practical Ethics and the Bodhi-Mind

Wonhyo emphasizes that arousing the mind of enlightenment involves both according with circumstances (vowing to eliminate afflictions and save all beings) and attuning to the principle (recognizing that all phenomena are illusory like a dream) . He views the repetition of the Buddha's name not just as a ritual, but as an expedient practice that allows beings to return to the source of the One Mind.

 

Part 5: Prefaces to Commentaries, Practical Ethics, and Legendary Biographies

This final section covers Wonhyo’s prefaces to his various commentaries, his writings on practical bodhisattva ethics, and the legendary accounts of his life and enlightenment.

1. Prefaces and Prolegomena (Daeui/Seo)

Wonhyo often used a unique literary form called the "prolegomenon" (daeui) to articulate the central issue of a text before the main exegesis. These prefaces are noted for their poetic and profound style, drawing on both Buddhist and Daoist rhetoric.

• Commentary on the Flower Ornament Sūtra (Hwaeomgyeong so): Wonhyo describes the Huayan teaching as an "unhindered and unobstructed dharma-opening" where one dharma is all dharmas and all dharmas are one dharma . He emphasizes how a single atom can contain all worlds, and an instant can include all kalpas.
• Commentary on the Samdhinirmocana-sūtra: He explains that the Buddha turned the dharma-wheel of complete revelation to clarify the underlying mystery for bodhisattvas, moving beyond conceptual proliferations (prapañca) to the perfect transformation of the basis .
• Exposition of the Vajrasamadhi-sūtra: Wonhyo characterizes the "fount of the One Mind" as being free from existence and non-existence. He describes this work as a "Vajrasamadhi" because it leaves nothing unrefuted and a "Compendium of the Great Vehicle" because there is nothing it does not establish.
• Doctrinal Essentials of the Nirvāṇa Sūtra (Yeolban jong-yo): He portrays the sūtra as a great ocean that harmonizes the disputes of a hundred philosophers, returning the "ten thousand streams" to the "single taste" of the One Mind .

2. Practical Ethics and the Bodhisattva Precepts

In his works on ethics, particularly the Essentials of Bodhisattva Precepts (Bosal gyebon jibeom yogi), Wonhyo focuses on the intent behind actions rather than rigid adherence to rules.

• Shallow vs. Profound Understanding: Wonhyo uses the example of "praising oneself and disparaging others". He argues that if this act is done for greed, it is a serious offense; however, if done with the intent to instill faith in others or establish the Buddha-dharma, it can be a source of great merit .
• The Middle Path: He warns that erroneous interpretations of precepts derive from two extremes: reification (attaching to the inherent existence of values) and nihilism (negating moral values because things are empty) . True observance involves "forgetting the three wheels" (donor, recipient, and gift) to achieve the perfection of morality.

3. Exhortation and Repentance

• Awaken Your Mind and Practice (Balsim suhaeng jang): This tract encourages newcomers to practice urgently. Wonhyo warns that the body is ephemeral and that a "man of the Way" who is greedy is a "laughingstock". He urges practitioners to seek spiritual training "right here, right now" as death can arrive suddenly .
• Great Vehicle Repentance (Daeseung yukjeong chamhoe): Wonhyo discusses repenting for sins committed through the six faculties. He prioritizes "repentance through principle" (icham), where one realizes that because both the self and the sin are originally unproduced and empty, the cycle of birth and death is fundamentally like a long dream .

4. Biographical Materials and Legends

Biographical accounts from the Samguk yusa and Song gaoseng zhuan portray Wonhyo as a transcendent figure .

• The Awakening in the Tomb: On his way to Tang China, Wonhyo sheltered in a tomb. After drinking water from a skull at night and experiencing nightmares, he realized that "shrine and tomb are not two" because "a thought arises, myriad dharmas arise". Realizing the truth was within his mind, he abandoned his trip.
• The "No Obstruction" Lifestyle: After fathering Seol Chong with Princess Yoseok, Wonhyo lived as the "Layman of Minor Lineage" . He danced through villages with a gourd called "No Obstruction" (Muae), teaching the common people to chant the Buddha's name.
• Miracles: Legend says he wrote the Vajrasamadhi commentary while riding an ox, using the space between its horns as a desk . After his death, a statue made of his remains by Seol Chong reportedly turned its head to look at his son